It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) headed by the sultan. [80] This unorthodox move, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother as-Salih Ismail in June 1342. [49] Campaigns against the Crusaders continued in 1267, and in the spring of 1268, Baybars' forces captured Jaffa before conquering the major Crusader fortress of Antioch on 18 May. [216] In modern times, from the late 19th century onwards, a "neo-Mamluk" style also appeared, partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles, in an effort to promote local "Egyptian" styles. [38] The surviving Mu'izzi and Bahri mamluks made their way to Gaza, where Baybars had created a virtual shadow state in opposition to Qutuz. [177] The Mamluk state resolved to increase allotments by dispersing an individual emir's iqtaat over several provinces and for brief terms. The Mamluk Sultanate was founded in 1250 by the Mamluk commander Qutuz. [117], A wide range of Islamic religious expression existed in Egypt during the early Mamluk era, namely Sunni Islam and its major madhabs (schools of thought) and various Sufi orders, but also small communities of Ismai'li Shia Muslims,[118] particularly in Upper Egypt. [169] The office of ustadar al-aliyah became a powerful post beginning in the late 14th century,[170] particularly so under sultans Barquq and an-Nasir Faraj,[169][170] who transferred the responsibilities of the special bureau for their mamluks to the authority of the ustadar, thus turning the latter into the sultanate's chief financial official. [202], Glass lamps were another high point of Mamluk art, particularly those commissioned for mosques. Caliphs were descendants of the Prophet Muhammedthe founder of the Islamic faith. [88] Yalbugha was subsequently killed by his own mamluks in an uprising in 1366. [200], In the art of manuscript decoration, the Qur'an was the book most commonly produced with a high degree of artistic elaboration. [193] Thus, during the 15th century, the long-established trade between Europe and the Islamic world began to make up a significant part of the sultanate's revenues as the Mamluks imposed taxes on the merchants who operated or passed through the sultanate's ports. [101] Barsbay's efforts at monopolization and trade protection were meant to offset the severe financial losses of the sultanate's agricultural sector due to the frequent recurring plagues that took a heavy toll on the farmers. [119] Under Sultan Saladin, the Ayyubids embarked on a program of reviving and strengthening Sunni Islam in Egypt to counter Christianity, which had been reviving under the religiously benign rule of the Fatimids,[119] and Ismailism, the branch of Islam of the Fatimid state. Lessing Archives. [52] In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of Aydhab. [201], Metalware, whether in the form of ewers, basins, or candlesticks, was widely used in various contexts and many examples have survived today. [160] The halqa had inferior status to the mamluk regiments. [19] The situation was calmed after the intervention of the atabeg al-askar (commander of the military), Fakhr ad-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh. The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea. [41] In September 1260, the two sides met in the plains south of Nazareth in a major confrontation known as the Battle of Ain Jalut. [68], Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother, an-Nasir Muhammad, being overthrown the following year by a Mongol mamluk of Qalawun, al-Adil Kitbugha, who in turn was succeeded by a Greek mamluk of Qalawun, Husam ad-Din Lajin. [84] Concurrently, Hasan began recruiting and promoting the awlad al-nas (descendants of mamluks who did not experience the enslavement/manumission process) in the military and administration, a process that lasted for the remainder of the Bahri period. [106] The Mamluk influence remained a force in Egyptian politics until their abrupt end at the hands of Muhammad Ali in 1811. [193] In the late 15th and early 16th centuries the Portuguese Empire's expansion into Africa and Asia began to significantly decrease the revenues of the Mamluk-Venetian monopoly on the trans-Mediterranean trade. Baibars attempts to expand into Mongol Territory The seventh Crusade begins [81] Isma'il ruled until his death in August 1345, and was succeeded by his brother al-Kamil Sha'ban. [122], The Mamluks sought to cultivate and utilize Muslim leaders to channel the religious feelings of the sultanate's Muslim subjects in a manner that did not disrupt the sultanate's authority. [62] The dtente also saw a shift in Qalawun's building activities to focus on more secular and personal purposes, including a large, multi-division hospital complex in Cairo across from the tomb of as-Salih Ayyub. [92] Ali died in May 1381 and was succeeded by his nine-year-old brother, as-Salih Hajji. Ceramic production was relatively less important overall, in part because Chinese porcelains were widely available. [129] Coptic bureaucrats would often be restored to their positions after the moment of tension passed. [93] Barquq entered into a brief engagement with Timur at the Euphrates in 1394, but Timur withdrew during that episode. [168] The administrative offices were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to various elements of the military hierarchy. [101] Barsbay also undertook efforts to better protect the caravan routes to the Hejaz from Bedouin raids and the Egyptian Mediterranean coast from Catalan and Genoese piracy. Be perfectly prepared on time with an individual plan. In addition, his diplomacy was also intended to maintain the flow of Turkic mamluks from Mongol-held Central Asia. Compared to the likes of the American Slave Trade, Mamluks were treated well and even granted freedom after years of initial servitude, though they were expected to keep loyal to their former masters. Either way, the Mamluks were proud of their heritage. [28], Aybak was one of the oldest of the Salihi mamluks and a senior member of as-Salih's inner circle, despite only being an emir awsat (middle-ranked emir). By registering you get free access to our website and app (available on desktop AND mobile) which will help you to super-charge your learning process. A variant thereof (al-Dawla al-Turkiyya al-Jarakisiyya) emphasized the fact that the Circassians were Turkic-speaking.[10]. [34], Meanwhile, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". [185] The state's role in Syro-Palestinian agriculture was restricted to the fiscal administration and to the irrigation networks and other aspects of rural infrastructure. [155], The sultan was the head of state and among his powers and responsibilities were issuing and enforcing specific legal orders and general rules, making the decision to go to war, levying taxes for military campaigns, ensuring the proportionate distribution of food supplies throughout the sultanate and, in some cases, overseeing the investigation and punishment of alleged criminals. [129] As a result of popular pressure, Coptic Christians had their employment in the bureaucracy terminated at least nine times between the late 13th and mid-15th centuries, and on one occasion, in 1301, the government ordered the closure of all churches. By the 16th century, gunpowder was becoming increasingly popular and effective in combat, and the Mamluks were slow to the draw. [88] In 1365, attempts by the Mamluks to annex Armenia, which had since replaced Crusader Acre as the Christian commercial foothold of Asia, were stifled by an invasion of Alexandria by Peter I of Cyprus. [101] With regards to European pirates, he launched campaigns against Cyprus in 14251426, during which the island's king was taken captive, because of his alleged assistance to the pirates; the large ransoms paid to the Mamluks by the Cypriots allowed them to mint new gold coinage for the first time since the 14th century. [71] An-Nasir Muhammad also attempted to assert permanent Mamluk control over the Makurian vassal state, launching an invasion in 1316 and installing a Muslim Nubian king, Abdallah Barshambu. The Mamluks left behind a fascinating legacy, fraught with controversy, political assassination and factional conflict - the perfect plot for the next blockbuster TV series. 76-80 Seljuk Empire Mamluk Sultanate Delhi Sultanate Geographic Location and Dates they maintained powe r 11 century, Middle east North Africa 1250-1517 South Asia Social Social classes & social hierarchy Who has power in society? [208][209] The decoration of monuments also became more elaborate over time, with stone-carving and colored marble paneling and mosaics (including ablaq) replacing stucco as the most dominant architectural decoration. [148] Under certain Ayyubid sultans, Egypt had paramountcy over the Syrian provinces, but under the Mamluks this paramountcy was consistent and absolute. [200] Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo were among the main centers of manuscript production. [54] Despite an alliance with the Assassins in 1272, in July 1273, the Mamluks, who by then determined that the Assassins' independence was problematic, wrested control of the Assassins' fortresses in Jabal Ansariyah, including Masyaf. After initial festivities, the 3,000 gathered Mamluk nobles were caught in a trap and gunned down. True or False: The Mamluks were massacred by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, effectively ending their existence. For God's sakewho pays any heed to the caliph now? [30] Aybak moved against the Bahriyyah in 1251 by shutting down their Rawda headquarters in a bid to sap Aktay's power base. [74], The third reign of an-Nasir Muhammad also saw a departure from the traditions of succession and administrative elevation of his predecessors since he observed in his first two reigns that such traditions had been ignored anyway, while sultans were being assassinated and mamluks were abusing other mamluks in bids for power. [10] Arabic sources for the period of the Bahri Mamluks refer to the dynasty as the 'State of the Turks' (Dawlat al-Atrak or Dawlat al-Turk) or 'State of Turkey' (al-Dawla al-Turkiyya). Replacing the dynastical reign of the Ayyubid Sultanate, the Mamluks ruled from Egypt and the Levant. [138], Bedouin tribes served as a reserve force in the Mamluk military. [169] Mamluk emirs also had their own ustadars. Later, when the Mamluks replaced the Ayyubid Sultanate, they controlled Egypt, the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Levant. The sultanate was established with the overthrow of the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt in 1250 and was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. [131] The 14th century saw a large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam[131] as a result of the intermittent persecution and destruction of the churches[129] and forced conversion to Islam. [197], Mamluk decorative artsespecially enameled and gilded glass, inlaid metalwork, woodwork, and textileswere prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. Test your knowledge with gamified quizzes. [165] To bring further uniformity to the military, Baybars and Qalawun standardized the undefined Ayyubid policies regarding the distribution of iqtaat to emirs. [166] For example, an emir of forty would be given an iqta a third of the size of an emir of one hundred's iqta. Mamluk-period Qur'ans were richly illuminated and exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran. [147] The Mamluk territorial domain was virtually the same as that of the Ayyubid state i.e. [210][211] Minarets, which were also elaborate, usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having a different design than the others. Initially, the Salihiyyah welcomed Turanshah's succession, with many greeting him and requesting confirmation of their administrative posts and iqta assignments at his arrival to the Egyptian frontier. [118] Under the Bahri sultans, the promotion of Sunni Islam was pursued more vigorously than under the Ayyubids. Will you pass the quiz? Title Did the Mamluks Have an Environmental Sense? Although the Crusade was a catastrophe for the Christian forces, initial differing strategies between the reigning Sultan and Mamluks resulted in the execution of many military commanders. [204][205][206] While Cairo was the main center of patronage, Mamluk architecture also appears in other cities of their realm such as Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Medina. [79] Ahmad relocated to al-Karak and left a deputy to rule on his behalf in Cairo. [16] Most of the mamluks in the Ayyubids' service were ethnic Kipchak Turks from Central Asia, who, upon entering service, were converted to Sunni Islam and taught Arabic. The Mamluk's largest industry was agriculture, yet their urban areas became increasingly impressive. [185] Centralization over Syria and Palestine was also more complicated than in Egypt due to the diversity of those regions' geography and the frequent invasions of the Syro-Palestinian territories. ", "A Damascene Eyewitness to the Battle of Nicopolis", "The Complex of Sultan Hasan in Cairo: Reading Between the Lines", "Social Milieus and Worldviews in Mamluk Adab-Encyclopedias: The Example of Poverty and Wealth", "The Position and Power of the Mamluk Sultan", "The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period", "Representing the Mamluks in Mamluk Historical Writing", "Identifying a Late Medieval Cadastral Survey of Egypt", "Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516", "The Re-Emergence of the Mamluks Following the Ottoman Conquest", "The Term Mamlk and Slave Status during the Mamluk Sultanate", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamluk_Sultanate&oldid=1132582141, States and territories established in 1250, States and territories disestablished in 1517, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2021, Articles to be expanded from February 2022, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. [122] This policy change may have been partly motivated by a desire to accommodate an increasingly diverse Muslim population whose components had immigrated to Egypt from regions where other madhabs were prevalent. [4] In addition, the caliph recognized the sultan's authority over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Diyarbakir, the Hejaz and Yemen and any territory conquered from the Crusaders or Mongols. In 1323, the two parties signed a peace treaty. [38], By the time of Aybak's death, the Bahriyyah had entered the service of al-Mughith Umar of al-Karak, who agreed to invade Egypt and claim the Ayyubid sultanate, but al-Mughith's small Bahri-dominated invading force was routed at the frontier with Egypt in November. iii DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108557382 Publisher: Cambridge University Press Print publication year: 2022 Access options [166] The reformation of iqta distribution created a clear link between an emir's rank and the size of his iqta. [110], Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of Kipchak Turkic, namely the Mamluk-Kipchak language was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. The Crusade ended with King Louis IX defeated and ransomed back to France for a hefty sum (some historians estimate the ransom to be equivalent to a third of France's economy at the time). [111][113], The ruling military elite of the sultanate was exclusive to those of mamluk background, with rare exceptions. Sell on Amazon Other Sellers on Amazon Added Not added Add to Cart View Cart $31.81 & FREE Shipping Sold by: Book Depository US Sold by: Book Depository US (948804 ratings) 91% positive over last 12 months In stock. [19] While historian Stephen Humphreys asserts that the Salihiyyah's increasing dominance of the state did not personally threaten as-Salih due to their fidelity to him, Clifford believes that the Salihiyyah developed an autonomy within the state that fell short of such loyalty. [98] Six months later, Shakyh eased al-Musta'in out of power after neutralizing his main rival, Nawruz, and assumed the sultanate. [56] In 1277, Baybars launched an expedition against the Ilkhanids, routing them in Elbistan in Anatolia, before ultimately withdrawing to avoid overstretching their forces and risk being cut off from Syria by a second, large incoming Ilkhanid army. Crime and Punishment in Industrial Britain, Advantages of North and South in Civil War, African Americans in the Revolutionary War, Civil War Military Strategies of North and South, Environmental Effects of The Columbian Exchange, Native Americans in the Revolutionary War. [73] By 1316, the number of mamluks was reduced to 2,000. When word of his death reached Hulagu, the Ilkhanate's Khan pulled back to Mongolia with a large portion of his army. [45] The need for smooth delivery of correspondence also led to the large scale repair or construction of roads and bridges along the postal route. [194] However, the frequent outbreaks of the Black Plague led to a decline in the Mamluk territories' production of goods such as textiles, silk products, sugar, glass, soaps, and paper, which coincided with the Europeans' increasing production of these goods. ], Bedouin tribes served as a reserve force in Egyptian politics until their end. Ahmad relocated to al-Karak and left a deputy to rule on his behalf in Cairo ] under the Bahri,. Mamluks ruled from Egypt and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea the dynastical reign the... [ 138 ], Glass lamps were another high point of Mamluk art, particularly those commissioned mosques. 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